Issues and Controversies Journalists Face

Issues and Controversies Journalists Face Theres never been a more tumultuous time in the news business. Newspapers are drastically downsizing and facing bankruptcy or the prospect of going out of business entirely. Web journalism is on the rise and taking many forms, but there are real questions about whether it can really replace newspapers. Press freedom, meanwhile, continues to be nonexistent or under threat in many countries around the world. There are also ongoing controversies about issues such as journalistic objectivity and fairness. It seems like a tangled mess at times, but there are many factors involved that well examine in detail. Print Journalism in Peril Newspapers are in trouble. Circulation is dropping, ad revenue is shrinking, and the industry has experienced an unprecedented wave of layoffs and cutbacks. So what does the future hold? While some people will argue that newspapers are dead or dying, many traditional outlets are indeed adapting to the new digital world. Most offer all of their content online, either via paid subscriptions or for free. This is also true for TV and radio media outlets. Though it seemed at first as if modern technology would win out over tradition, the tide seems to be finding a balance. For example, local papers are discovering new ways to localize a story to attract readers interested in a smaller piece of the bigger picture. The Rise of Web Journalism With the decline of newspapers, web journalism seems to be the future of the news business. But what exactly do we mean by web journalism? And can it really replace newspapers? In general terms, web journalism includes bloggers, citizen journalists, hyper-local news sites, and even websites for print papers. The internet certainly opened up the world for more people to write whatever they want, but that doesnt mean all of these sources have the same credibility. Bloggers, for instance, tend to focus on a niche topic, as do citizen journalists. Because some of these writers do not have training in or necessarily care about the ethics of journalism, their personal bias can come across in what they write. This is not what we consider journalism per se. Journalists are concerned with the facts,  getting to the heart of the story, and have their own on-the-job lingo. Digging for answers and telling them in objective ways has long been a goal of professional reporters. Indeed, many of these professionals have found an outlet in the online world, which makes it tricky for news consumers. Some bloggers and citizen journalists are unbiased and produce great news reports. Likewise, some professional journalists are not objective and lean one way or another on political and social issues. This burgeoning online outlet has created all types on either side. This is the larger dilemma because it is now up to readers to decide what is credible and what is not. Press Freedoms and Reporters Rights In the United States, the press enjoys a great deal of freedom to report critically and objectively on the important issues of the day. This freedom of the press is granted by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In much of the world, press freedom is either limited or virtually nonexistent. Reporters are often thrown in jail, beaten, or even killed just for doing their jobs. Even in the U.S. and other free-press countries, journalists face ethical dilemmas about confidential sources, disclosing information, and cooperating with law enforcement. All of these things are of great concern and debate to professional journalism. However, it  is unlikely to be anything that resolves itself in the near future. Bias, Balance, and an Objective Press Is the press objective? Which news outlet is really fair and balanced, and what does that actually mean? How can reporters set aside their biases and really report the truth? These are some of the biggest questions of modern journalism. Newspapers, cable television news, and radio broadcasts have all come under fire for reporting stories with a bias. This is especially true in political reporting, but even some stories that should not be politicized fall victim to it. A perfect example can be found on cable news. You can watch the same story on two networks and get two completely different perspectives. The political divide has indeed swept into journalism - in print, on air, and online. Thankfully, a number of reporters and outlets have kept their bias in check and continue to tell the story in a fair and balanced manner.

Evolution of Stable Angina into Acute Myocardial Infarction Essay

Evolution of Stable Angina into Acute Myocardial Infarction - Essay Example It is a very variable symptom that varies when is described by different patients, and this makes it one of the most controversial symptoms in the medicine (Melvyn et al. 2010). Stabile angina pectoris is usually first recognized during a general practice (GP) doctor visit or is noticed by a nurse during a home visit or other occasion. GP doctors often must decide if the acute symptoms described by the patient are due to heart problems or some other less acute condition and have limited resources in GP ambulance to do complete more detailed diagnostic tests like a stress test, laboratory findings, angiography or other procedures that are less often found in GP office. Initial recognition of this symptom but also the future monitoring and treatment of these patients is important for the preventing progression of evolution of the coronary artery disease and progression of stable angina pectoris into unstable angina or myocardial infarction (Adam et al. 2007). In this essay, we will con duct a critical review of several studies in order to assess factors that influence the recognition and progression of stable angina pectoris into a more serious condition. Review of studies in relevance to stable angina pectoris in primary care As we mentioned above angina pectoris is a symptom defined by the patient in his own words. This condition can often cause changes like ST depression on EKG strip but very often angina pectoris can occur without any changes on the ECG strip (Hausmann et al. 1991). Because more accurate methods for confirmation of angina pectoris are often unavailable in pre-hospital or pre-clinical settings, anamnesis has an important function as a factor for initial recognition of this disease. But as we mentioned above angina pectoris is a subjective symptom and description of the patients often vary significantly. This condition was researched by Melvyn et al. 2010 who tried to recognize the variations of presentation of these symptoms. For this task, the y recruited patients from two general practice institutions and only included patients that had a diagnosis of angina pectoris or other ischemic cardiovascular (CV) condition or patients that were taking some form of nitrates. All of the participants were subjected to interview conducted by medical professionals and all of the participants were asked the same questions: did they have any chest, jaw or neck discomfort in the last year and how would they describe this discomfort. A total of 64 patients were interviewed. There are a set of widely accepted individual interpretations of angina pectoris that are called angina â€Å"canon†. These symptoms are (Somerville et al. 2008): - association of the symptoms with physical exercise. - positive reaction after administration of medication, - general duration of symptoms during a single attack.

Christian Counseling vs. Professional Psychotherapy Essay

Christian Counseling vs. Professional Psychotherapy - Essay Example This discussion highlights that  advice is statement, which helps the person to make the right decision.   It is not as specific as counsel is and has the aim to lead the counseled individual to the right decision.   Advice provides several alternatives and individual decides which alternative is more acceptable to him/her.This paper outlines that  wisdom is a different concept than counsel and advice.   It is not even the trait of the character, but rather the ability to make right decision based on the previous experience and the ability to reason, to consider different alternatives and to make the best decisions.   From Biblical perspective, wisdom comes with the acceptance of the Godly lifestyle and belief into God, while from the general perspective the person is regarded as wise if all of his decisions are logically and ethically right.   The concept of wisdom is introduced in the Bible from the first book:   â€Å"When the woman saw that the fruit of the tree was good for food and pleasing to the eye, and also desirable for gaining wisdom, she took some and ate it.   She also gave some to her husband, who was with her, and he ate it†.  Wisdom is also the ability to be tolerant to others, the ability to listen to people and to accept their point of view, even if it is very different from the own. Being wise is not about knowing answers to all questions but rather about hearing others, analyzing the situations and finding the most appropriate solution, as the above verse supposes.  ... In this verse, the "counsel" has a different meaning - it indicates the way of life unbelievers have. Advice Advice is statement, which helps the person to make the right decision. It is not as specific as counsel is and has the aim to lead the counseled individual to the right decision. Advice provides several alternatives and individual decides which alternative is more acceptable to him/her (Butler 2003). "Listen now to me and I will give you some advice, and may God be with you. You must be the people's representative before God and bring their disputes to him" (Ex 18:19, Kohlenberger 2001). In this verse the advice is the recommendation but very specific one - the person is recommended to make the specific choice (to become the people's representative) and assume the specific responsibility (to bring the disputes of people to God). "Absalom said to Ahithophel, "Give us your advice. What should we do" (2 Sa 16:20, Kohlenberger 2001). Advice in this verse is self-explained: Absalom asks Ahithophel "what shall we do" - he is asking for the direction in life, the alternative course of act ion. Advice is asked for when someone is aware that some choice has to be done, but he is not able to decide which one is better. "When Hushai came to him, Absalom said, "Ahithophel has given this advice. Should we do what he says If not, give us your opinion" (2 Sa 17:6, Kohlenberger 2001). The meaning of advice in this verse is an alternative, possible course of action. It can be either accepted or rejected by the one who receives it. Bible leaves the right to make decision to the individual, who is the only one to decide what is better for him

The difference between liberalism and socialism Essay

The difference between liberalism and socialism - Essay Example Nevertheless, wealth is shared in accordance with the individual’s contribution in the creation of that wealth (Wallerstein 73). This implies that those who involved a lot in the creation of the wealth get more share than those who does not contribute much in the creation of wealth. Socialist ideology also discourages the formation of classes or groups since it does not support competition among individuals (Wallerstein 74). To socialists, everybody in the society is considered equal, meaning that no one is considered superior to others. It is also noted that, in a socialist government, all resources are collectively owned by the people who also determine how the resources are to be utilized for the development of the society. Socialists also believe in equality and, therefore, discourage accumulation of capital in the hands of a few according to Wallerstein (73). China is a good example of a socialist state, which has also practiced the liberal system of government. Germany a nd the U.K. are another classical example of a country that have practiced both socialism and liberalism (Wallerstein 76). Liberalism is a political ideology which believes in the freedom of people in the society (Wallerstein 74). This implies that it is opposed to any restrictions on people in the society. According to liberalists, the state has the power to control all industries with the aim of eliminating malpractices. However, unlike in a socialist system that discourages private ownership of property, liberalists encourage private ownership of property (Wallerstein 75). The liberalist economic system, like a socialist system, is also structured in a manner the ensures fair distribution of national resources to every individual in the society as noted by Wallerstein (75). However, in a liberalist system, the activities of private welfare is regulated by the government or laws aimed at barring them from exploiting their

Single parenthood does not benefit the society

Single parenthood does not benefit the society The purpose of writing this research report is to discuss on the question that single parenthood does not benefits the society and it brings negative effects to the society. There will be a full explanation with some evidences to support the idea that single parenthood brings many negative effects to the society. Furthermore, this report will also have three main ideas on the negative effects as well as how they are likely to affect the single parents, children and society. At the same time, there will also include the weaknesses of arguments from the opponents. After a brief explanation of the three main ideas, there will also have some recommendations for this report. Understandably, most of the problems are come from the single parents towards the children, thus, single parents have to show some responsibilities towards this problem, several recommendations are needed to take into actions. However, before actions, it is necessary for us to have certain knowledge on the negative ef fects. Hope that this research report will pave the way to overcome the problems of single parenthood. 1.0 Introduction A family in society is often seen as a father, mother and their children. Nowadays this is not always the case. In this modern age, single parenthood is now acceptable in our society. It is a person who builds a family and cares for one or more children without marriage or without the presence of a husband or wife. According to information from the United States Census Bureau, in 2002 there are about 20 million children lived in a household with only their mother or their father. (Single Parent Central, 2004). Single parent families are families with children under age 18 headed by a parent who is widowed or divorced, not remarried, adoption, artificial insemination and surrogate motherhood, or by a parent who has never married. It also may be the result of an unforeseeable occurrence, such as death, child abuse, child neglect, or abandonment by biological parents. In this day and age, single parenting caused by adoption of a child are widely accepted. Adoption by single individuals has also soared. In 1970 only 0.5 to 4 percent of adoptive parents were single. In the 1980s this rate increased from 8 to 34 percent. According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, 33 percent of children adopted from foster care are adopted by single parents. (Single Parent Central, 2004). A single parent who has chosen to adopt generally feel as though their life is incomplete without a child, they feel there is a loneliness which money or a social friend network cannot cure in their life. As a result of that, it has brought up an ultimate question which remains debatable among the society is, single parenthood does not benefits the society and it brings negative effects to the society. Do you agree? In the end, the answer for this question is yes. Single parenthood does not benefits us, besides, it brings many negative effects to the society. So, single parenthood is not encouraged by the society because it will bring impacts for the children of single parent and they are not growth in a complete and healthy family. According to a study conducted in the United States, children from a single parent background had a 77 percent chance of being physically abused, 87 percent risk of being harmed by neglect and overall 120 percent of being endangered by some form of child abuse. (National Service Personnel, 2010) Therefore, this report will mainly focus on the negative effects of single parenthood to the society. It will indicate that the single parents have financial problems, they cannot handle the pressure of raising the children alone. Furthermore, most of the children may have psychological problems due to lack of supervision and they may involve in social problems. It also include the weaknesses of the arguments from the opponents. Overall, this research results are related to the global range, including United States and some other European countries. The percentage of children of all races living in single parent homes has been steadily increasing since 1970. Percentage of Children in Single Parent Homes: 1970-2005 http://youthviolence.edschool.virginia.edu/prevention/images/singleparentchart.gif Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. Current Population Survey Families and Living Arrangements, Historical Tables. Table CH-1: Living Arrangements of Children Under 18 Years Old: 1960 to Present. The proportion of children living in single-parent homes more than doubled between 1970 and 2006 from 12% to 28%, according to the Current Population Survey (CPS). Over the 36-year period, the share of children living with only their mother rose from 10 percent to 24 percent while the share living with only their father grew from less than 2 percent to 5 percent. A never-married parent is becoming more common in single-parent homes. Between 1970 and 2006, the proportion of children living with a never-married parent increased from 7% to 42%. In 2006, almost 4 percent of children lived with other relatives (including foster parents) and fewer than 1 percent lived with non relatives. Although there may be no direct, causal link between single parent families and youth violence, poor parenting is often identified as one of the most serious risk factors for unhealthy youth development. 2.0 Body of Content 2.1 Single parents cannot handle the pressure of raising the child alone. As a single parent, raising a child is challenging. It is like having two jobs at once. Psychologists believe that raising a child is a very stressful task that single parent will require to be a sympathetic mother plus a strict and providing father at the same time. Without proper guidance from counselors, a single parent will deteriorate emotionally due to stress. Psychologists suggest that in order for a single parent to manage both stress and take care of their child, they should enumerate things that brings them the stressors. (Maxx Family Life, 2010). Another important thing to regard is single parent have to struggle to do everything by themselves with no one else to blame if it does not get done. They have to learn that if something has to be done, then they are the one has to do it. Even if they have developed a network of friends which helps each other, they also may find that there are some jobs have to be done by themselves when no one is capable of or have time to do. According to The Single Mothers Survival Guide, the most common challenge for a single parent will be the financial problems. Opponents argued that single parents will have total control over expenditures than a two parents. They will have to plan on a specific date and set money aside to cover the expenses for their living that a two parents may not have. As single parents are handling the family finances, medically dental care, transportation, household tasks such as repairs and moving, so they must have a wise plan on their expenses. However, to oppose this, in 2002, as twice as many single parent families earned less than $30,000 per year compared to families with two parents present. At the opposite end of the spectrum, 39 percent of two-parent families earned more than $75,000 compared to 6 percent of single mother families and 11 percent of single father families. (Single Parent Central, 2004). Single parents are low income earners. They usually survive on only one income, whe reas other families usually have two parents working providing double income. Kristen Anderson Moore from the Child Trends claims that children living in households with single parents were five times as likely to be poor as the children in households where both parents were present. (Child Trends Research Brief, 2007). Child Poverty by Family Type. Children Age 0-11, 1994-1995 Note: Poverty is measured using Statistics Canadas Low-Income Cut-Off Lines. Source: NLSCY 17 percent of children in two-parent families and 68 percent of children in single-parent families were living in poverty, based on Statistics Canadas 1994 Low-Income Cut-Off Lines (LICO). Infants were over 20 percent more likely than 11-year-olds to be living in poverty, primarily because younger families have higher poverty rates. One in ten Canadian children live in households that are supported primarily by social assistance. 17% of children in two-parent and 68% in single-parent families live in poverty. Only 0.4 percent of children live with teen mothers. However, the overview report stated, even though the numbers were relatively small, this group of children demands particular attention because of the heightened risk of growing up in a poor household and having poor child outcomes. Child outcomes were examined in the areas of emotional and behavioral functioning, academic functioning and social functioning. Most children had no problems in these areas only 26 percent had one or more problems. About 10 percent of Canadian babies are born prematurely, and 5.7 percent had a low birth weight. There is a well established link between important indicators of health at birth, such as low birth weight and prematurity, health and social problems later in life, the authors of the report stated. Also, the NLSCY corroborated past research linking low household income and mothers who smoked during pregnancy with a higher incidence of low birth weight. 2.2 Children may have psychological problems due to lack of communication and attention from their parents. Children from single parent families are more likely to suffer emotional problems than those who are living with both parents. According to the survey carried out by National Statistics, children from the age of 5 to 18, the result showed that 3 percent had developed problems, 30 percent had emotional issues and 43 percent had behavior problems. They stressed that they had not found any direct causes of the problems in children but sure that will be a link to living in a not complete family. (National Statistics, 2008). Children who experienced the stressful events such as seeing their lovely parents divorce, appear in court, being tortured or serious injured by ones parent, they were likely to develop emotional problems. Others emotional issues includes anxiety, depression or become aggressive and antisocial behavior because they think that their parents divorce because they do not want to take care of them. Based on another survey, children whose parents had break up were 4.53 time s more likely to develop emotional problems than those children in two parent family and were 2.87 times to show the onset of behavior disorders. (National Statistics, 2008). As a fact, children in single parent families have psychological problems or abnormal behaviors due to the lack of family care. Consequently, these children suffer a lot from mental strain and stress, therefore they may change their moods very easily and frequently, sometimes they are not willing to listen to their parents. Another important thing to regard is single parents are the sole breadwinners for the family, so they cannot always spend so much time with their kids, this will lead to a poor relationship between them and single parents also may have less parental control over the children. In fact, the children are lack of supervision and they do not receive guidance or attention when they are desperately seeking for. As a result, the gap between the single parent and the children may widen, children might feel that friends are more important than their parents. Hence, communication is an important role in the developing and growth of a child. Parents who communicate and supervise their children will enhance their well-being. (Maccoby and Martin, 1983). Single parents should work to the best on doing everythings to make their children feel love, respect and secure. Opponents argued that in a single parent household with sufficient income, the parent will actually have more free time to allocate for the kids that a married parent would have. They can give much attention that a single parent will often bestow in the absence of a spouse and concentrate on their childrens studies in order to have a high level of academic achievement. Children who have that kind of support, even if it is only from one parent, are much better equipped to deal with the intellectual. On top of that, African American children in elementary school actually do better in school when their parents work outside of the house. The fact that children from low income, single parent families actually can have higher grades than children from two parent homes. (One-parent households and achievement, 1992). However, to oppose this, single parents who have less time overseeing their childrens study habits and helping them with their homework, therefore, the children may have discipl ine problems and do poorly in school, all these will lead to the lower of academic achievement. Thus, two parent household is better for a child, it is really not surprising. (Matt Garrett, 2007). 2.3 Children who involve in social problems like crime, alcohol and drug abuse are they face family problems. Children of single parents are more likely to involve in dangerous behaviors such as smoking, drinking alcohol, drug abuse, crime, delinquency, violence, sexual activity, suicide attempts, etc. This would link on logically from the psychological problems mentioned above. If a child is unhappy and dissatisfied, they need someone to share with their problems and they cant find their own parents to talk with, so they will most probably want to smoke and drink to release out their stress. Often, children left alone at home for long periods when their parents get outside to work, they may be unduly influenced by peers that can lead to unwanted behavior. While most parents will want to respect their childrens privacy, watching for early tell tale signs of drug use or other harmful behavior will save everyone much grief later. (David Richardson, 2007). Furthermore, in The Lancets Jan. 25 issue, the research showed among other things, that 2.5 percent of boys and 1.5 percent of girls in sing le parent families were hospitalized with alcohol problems and the increased risk for drug addiction, compared to just 1 percent of boys and 0.5 percent of girls in two parent homes. (Bootie Cosgrove-Mather, 2003). Another important thing to consider is adolescents are more negatively affected by parental discord prior to divorce . Later, as they from single parents families become adult, they are more likely to marry early, have children early and divorce too, follow their own parents footstep. (Demo and Acock, 1991). Understandably, children need to feel love and secure from their parents in the developing and growth, this may be difficult following a divorce, especially if it was an acrimonious divorce. Family and home are fundamental to a childs sense of self and if children lose confidence on this safe and loving place, they might lose their belief to the world. Opponents claim that in single parenthood, children prior two parents household included frequent fighting and discord between the adults, the absence of a partner means the absence of sometimes irrational and vehement arguments that the children would observe. Consequently, children can be benefit from living in a one parent home provided that the conflict is stopped. At the same time, children being raised in a single parent families can learn to be self reliant, they solve problems themselves. They also can learn to help with household chores and care for younger siblings, which makes them become more mature and gain in more responsibilities than other children in their age group as a result of altered family routines (Demo and Acock, 1991). However, to oppose this, in fact, having two parents is usually better than one. Children are actually learn by example, if their parents didnt have any fighting and discord, on the contrary, they are loving and caring to their children, then it will lead to a happy and well being family. So, be a good role model for the children to follow by setting a good example. 3.0 Conclusion Above all, it can be states that single parenthood does not benefits the society and it indeed brings many negative effects to the society. In this day and age, people pursue a high quality life and happy marriage, but their hopes will usually end up in a higher rate of divorce and greater hurt to the children than before. It will be better if divorced parents establish a new family life with their children, they should spend more time, patience, care and love to their kids. Single parents will have a unique opportunity to influence their children for good or ill, without the counterbalance of another partner. Therefore, based on the three arguments that are mentioned and with the aids of examples and supporting arguments, we could conclude that it is really important to give children a peaceful and stable home environment in the developing and growth of them. 4.0 Recommendations It is highly recommended that the society take steps to help in overcoming the problems of single parenthood whether is the single parents or the children. We should keep in mind that we want to live in a peaceful life and to look forward to a progressive society. Statistics indicate that single parents cannot handle the pressure of raising the child alone, so the government sector should provide some subsidies for single parents in order to reduce the expenses of single parents, instead they can also save the money for being used by future. Besides, some of the children may have psychological problems due to lack of communication and attention from their parents, therefore, single parents should spend more time with their children like have some family day events on holidays, always have a talk with them, do not let them feels that they are left out. Other than that, as a matter of fact, children who involve in social problems like crime, alcohol and drug abuse are they face family problems, the single parents and the society should avoid the happenings of such social problems because children who are still young, they do not know how to differentiate that what should do and what should not do. Hence, adults like us have the responsibilities to help and protect the children, especially their parents.

Edgar Allen Poes The Cask Of Amontillado :: essays research papers fc

"The Cask of Amontillado" Grimes ii Outline Thesis: The descriptive details in "The Cask of Amontillado" not only appeal to the senses of the audience, but also show that the narrator has a memory that has been haunted with details that he can recall fifty years later. I. Introduction II. Auditory Appeal III. Humor Appeal IV. Visual Appeal V. Conclusion Grimes 1 "The vividness with which [Poe] transcribes his sensory experiences contributes powerfully to the response his stories invoke" (Fagin 202). In "The Cask of Amontillado," Edgar Allan Poe uses captivating images to descriptively tell a tail of revenge, while appealing to the senses of the audience. In "The Cask of Amontillado," Montressor seeks to have revenge on Fortunato for an unknown insult. Montressor confesses at the beginning of the story, "The thousand injuries of Fortunato I had borne as I best could; but when he ventured upon insult, I vowed revenge" (Lowell 214). Montresor wants to "not only punish, but punish with impunity"(214). The nature of this insult is not made clear; however, the reader is led to believe that the insult changed Montresor’s social status. Montresor says to Fortunato "You are rich, respected, admired, beloved; you are happy, as once I was." This leads the reader to believe that Montresor once had high social status, but that status has changed due to the insult by Fortunato. Fortunato, entering the scene wearing a jesters costume, is unaware of Montesors’ evil intentions of murder. Montresor persuades Fortunato, who prides "himself on his connoisseurship in wine," to go into the family vaults so he can taste and identify some "Amontillado" (Lowell 215). Along the way Fortunato becomes extremely drunk and unaware of Montresor’s evil plot of murder. Montresor then proceeds to lead him through the catacombs and finally buries him alive behind a wall. Mont resor calls to Fortunato, but the only reply that he receives comes in the "jingling of the bells" from Fortunato’s cap (222). Grimes 2 II. Auditory Appeal The fact that the narrator mentions the "jingling of the bells" several times after fifty years indicates that he is haunted with a memory of their sound. Poe knew that the audience would relate the terrifying sound of the bells to premature burial. Premature burial is a concern during the 19th century when Poe writes this short story (Platizky 1). Live burial is practiced during this time as a form of capital punishment in Europe (1).

Paper Chromatography Lab Essay

Purpose: to separate the various photosynthetic pigments of Spinacia oleracea leaves. Materials: – methanol – water – filter paper – sand – test tube – 10 S. oleracea leaves – 2 wooden splints – mortar – pestle Method: First, 10 S. oleracea leaves were gathered. A piece of filter paper, a wooden splint, a mortar and pestle were also gathered. The leaves were placed inside the mortar, filling the mortar approximately half full. The leaves were then crushed with the pestle. Sand, water and methanol were added and then the leaves were crushed again. This was repeated until the leaves had reached the consistency of a soupy green paste. The leaf extract (soupy green paste) was strained, removing the fibrous spinach paste, which was placed into the garbage, and leaving the liquid leaf extract. The wooden splint was dipped into the leaf extract and then traced in a thin straight line onto the filter paper. The filter paper was allowed to dry for approximately 2 minutes. The next coat could not be applied until the paper was completely dry. The process was repeated 10 times, from dip, trace and drying. A test tube was gathered as well as methanol and a second wooden splint. The wooden splint was pi erced through the top of the filter paper and then the filter paper was placed into the empty test tube. It was measured how much methanol would be needed so that the tip of the filter paper was submerged but the extract line was not submerged. After measurement, the filter paper was removed from the test tube. The methanol was poured into the test tube up to the measured fill point. The filter paper was then carefully inserted so that it never touched the edges of the test tube. The test tube was carefully placed vertically into a test tube holder and allowed to absorb methanol for 45 minutes. After the 45 minutes were complete, the filter paper was then removed, measured as to how far pigments had travelled and left to dry. Observations: Calculations: Rf xanthophyll= distance pigment travelled distance to solvent front = 7 9.7 = 0.72 Rf chlorophyll a= distance pigment travelled distance to solvent front = 8.4 9.7 = 0.87 Rf chlorophyll b= distance pigment travelled distance to solvent front = 8.5 9.7 = 0.88 Rf carotene= distance pigment travelled distance to solvent front = 8.7 9.7 = 0.90 Discussion: 1. The Mortar and Pestle is used to break down the intramolecular bonds within the S. oleracea leaves. This helped break the molecule down into smaller molecules and individual atoms so that chloroplasts and their pigments were not buried inside the leaf and were  easily accessible. 2. Methanol is used to dissolve the pigments, as methanol is polar and so are the pigments. As we saw, the pigments stayed with the methanol in the liquid part of the mixture but everything else (cell walls, etc) floated to the top of the mixture, so we could easily remove it. 3. It is important that the filter paper did not touch the walls of the test tube because if touching the side walls, water would absorb from the sides as well as the bottom of the filter paper. If this were to happen, the flow of methanol up the filter paper would be disturbed, thus disturbing the flow and separation of the pigments. 4. It is very important that the leaf extract not be dissolved in the solvent because it would not travel upward the same. If the extract line were to be dissolved in the methanol, it would simply dissolve into the methanol, without actually having the chance to travel up the filter paper. With the extract line above the meniscus, the pigments’ only choice was to follow the path of the methanol. 5. Water would not be able to carry the pigments up the filter paper because it does not have the same physical properties as methanol. One of methanol’s unique features is that it dissolves compounds of very high polarity. While water will dissolve polar molecules, it would be unable to dissolve these pigments as well as methanol can. 6. According to my findings, chloroplast a is in the highest abundance in the leaf extract. This is known because of the very bright green colour of the pigment, as well as the expanse of chloroplast a on the filter paper. 7. Pigments separate rather than travel up the paper at the same rate due to their solubility. Pigments that are the most soluble in methanol will travel to the highest levels, almost as high as methanol itself, but pigments that are least soluble in methanol will stay lower down on the filter paper. The pigments will only travel far enough so that they are completely dissolved  from the methanol to the filter paper. Therefore, those pigments that are least soluble in methanol, take less time and space to dissolve from methanol so they stop travelling at an earlier stage that those that are most soluble with methanol. 8. The meaning of the Rf value is to help identify pigments. Each pigment holds an Rf value, which is used like a fingerprint. Although colour can be used to identify pigments, their Rf value is the true indication of which pigment is present. Conclusion: the various photosynthetic pigments in S. oleracea were separated using the chromatography technique.